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Of all the things that were discussed, “normalization of deviance” struck a chord with me. I saw that it had direct application to diving safety leading me to the creation of this article. Normalization of deviance means that people become so accustomed to a conscious deviation from a standard procedure that they no longer consider those changes as being deviant.  

During my nearly 50 years as a diving professional and 23 years working at Divers Alert Network (DAN), I have read and reviewed many diving accident reports involving divers from all over the diving world. Understanding what turned an enjoyable recreational dive into a tragedy is an important step in learning how to avoid the same fate. To quote Eleanor Roosevelt, “Learn from the mistakes of others. You can’t live long enough to make them all yourself.” Many case reports detail a series of actions and habitual behaviors, which appear so far beyond comprehension that they defy our definition of “diver error.”

In 2008, Dr. Petar Denoble at DAN, reviewed nearly 1,000 diver fatalities. Part of his research identified triggering events that initiated a cascade of circumstances that transformed an otherwise enjoyable dive into a fatality were listed (Denoble, P., et al, “Causes of Recreational Diving Fatalities” UHM 2008, Vol. 35, No.6). Those triggering events were:

Looking at this data, you can see that over 60% of the identified triggering events (Out of Breathing Gas, Equipment Problems, Buoyancy and Inappropriate Gas) were either directly or indirectly related to equipment preparation and use. Before going any further, let me comment on one of the triggering events, “Equipment Problems.” From my experience and the review of the circumstances surrounding diving fatalities, I believe that “Equipment Problems”. is more likely to be “Problems with Equipment.” In other words, user error rather than a flaw in the equipment design. Using a checklist and a consistent pre-dive ritual can increase the likelihood of identifying and correcting errors before diving. The problem seems to be that divers, even some with extensive diving experience, may decide to take short cuts or deviate from standard safety procedures due to some sense of time pressure, complacency or just feeling that standard procedures may not apply to them.  

DAN’s Annual Diving Report has interesting data regarding experience levels for diving fatalities. One graph (below) shows the number of openwater dives a diver has done within the 12 months preceding a diving fatality. In the graph below, you will see two distinct spikes in the number of fatalities. One spike involves divers with fewer than 20 openwater dives. This spike in the number of fatalities might be explained by the fact that these divers have limited experience in openwater diving, and their skills may not be sufficient to appropriately deal with a crisis underwater. Another spike in the same graph shows an increased number of fatalities with divers that have made more than 300 openwater dives in the months preceding a diving fatality. It may seem incredulous that divers with that much recent experience would get themselves in a situation where something occurred that initiated a series of events from which they could not recover. 

One possible explanation for a high number of fatalities among very experienced divers could be that they may have routinely deviated from standard safety procedures so frequently that these deviations became “normalized” because in all previous instances nothing occurred reinforcing the use of these shortcuts. Even then, the question that should come to mind is how can trained, equipped, and experienced divers, with more than 300 individual diving experiences in the 12 months preceding their death in a diving accident, get themselves into a situation where their skills, abilities and equipment were not sufficient for them to survive an underwater diving emergency. 

Reading through the details of many of these “accidents” found in the annual DAN Diving Accident Reports, causes you to naturally reflect on your own diving experiences and makes you realize that this could happen to you, just as it has happened to a number of highly trained, experienced and apparently qualified divers.

Clearly any of the divers found in the DAN annual Diving Reports were fully capable of following proper diving procedures and had done so on many previous openwater dives. When giving seminars on diver safety, one concept that is always brought up is “complacency” as one possible contributing factor in diving accidents. This is certainly true in many cases, but there may be another explanation, “normalization of deviance.” Normalization of deviance, in this case, means that certified and qualified scuba divers may have become so accustomed to a conscious deviation from standard diving and safety procedures that they no longer consider them as being a departure from the norm. Divers grow more accustomed to the deviation from standard procedures the more frequently they use them. To others, the deviation from a standard procedure would be seen as incorrect but to the diver, and possibly even others they regularly dive with, the incorrect procedure might seem like a normal part of the diver’s diving skills. When a deviation is made and the outcome is successful without any negative consequences, it subliminally reinforces the use of that deviation. In other words, the diver may experience a subconscious reward for doing the wrong thing because it worked.  

The term “normalization of deviance” was coined by sociologist and Columbia University professor Dr. Diane Vaughn in her book, The Challenger Launch Decision. She detailed the decisions made by NASA that led to the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. There had been problems with the “O” rings in the solid rocket boosters on previous launches without incident. Therefore, it became “normal operating procedure” to make launch “Go” decisions with identified issues with the “O” rings. NASA, unfortunately, did not learn from the Challenger disaster and fell victim to it again when the Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrated when the heat shield failed upon re-entry in 2003. Apparently, there had been heat shield issues during previous re-entries without serious incident, again, leading to issues with the heat shield being considered within “normal” operating parameters. 

In order to learn from these space flight tragedies and other, more recent, catastrophic incidents within the diving world, we should fully understand the dangers from deviations from safe operating procedures when they become “normalized.” The first step in avoiding “normalization of deviance” is awareness. In diving safety, we discuss the concept of “situational awareness.” Situational awareness is where we are constantly monitoring those things going on as we prepare for a dive, during the dive and afterwards. This includes the pre-dive period as our diving companions are preparing and configuring their equipment. During the dive as we monitor our depth, bottom time, breathing gas consumption and anytime changes occur that could increase our risk during a dive. Post-dive as we observe our diving companions looking for signs of issues that could have been the result of the dive. When we identify anything that could negatively impact our diving experience, our knowledge and skills should alert us to take some sort of action. 

There are many factors which may increase the likelihood of normalization of deviance. For example, there are divers, even those with lots of experience, who often develop shortcuts or neglect proper procedures, including those steps found on accepted checklists from training programs, or even those considered as standard safety procedures. The justification for conscious rule breaking often comes where the rule or standard is perceived as ineffectual. In charter boat or liveaboard diving, time pressure may be an issue that would seem to justify skipping a few steps that may be considered inconsequential.  Saving a few minutes in preparation may seem to be the right thing to do when others are waiting for you but would seem less important when things go terribly wrong once in the water. Divers may also learn a deviation without actually realizing it. Diver training only covers part of what a diver needs to know to dive, especially in some of the more challenging diving situations. Some divers will adopt modifications from other, apparently more experienced, divers that have worked for them in similar situations. They may do this without questioning or completely evaluating these modifications in procedures. And, finally, diving in a culture that permits mistakes to go uncorrected. There is a popular saying nowadays, “See something, say something.” This philosophy may certainly have value in terms of accident prevention. Diving companions may be afraid to speak up when they see something about a pre-dive preparation or even a diving skill that deviates from proper procedures or techniques. Even though we are certainly not our brother’s keeper, we do have an obligation to our diving companions to help identify something just doesn’t seem right and thus, preventing an accident. There is no problem with simply asking questions about something that is different than what we expect or different than what we’ve seen before. In fact, it is a way we may learn. You may have actually discovered a new and better way of doing something or you may have brought an error to the attention of a fellow diver, possibly preventing an unfortunate situation from occurring. One caution, however: never take anything at face value when it comes to diving or safety. Evaluate anything that is different from what you know to be correct and ask others with more experience or expertise.

Resisting the tendency to deviate from proper procedures or techniques that were developed to keep our sport and divers safe requires a willingness from every diver to always follow the skills, techniques and procedures that they were taught. One approach to combatting deviations from safe diving procedures is to develop and maintain a culture of diving safety. A safety culture is the enduring value and priority placed on safety by every diver at every level. All divers must commit to personal responsibility for safety; preserve, enhance, and communicate safety concerns as soon as they are identified; actively learn from past mistakes and the mistakes of others and apply safe behaviors based upon lessons learned. Anything less than a full commitment to a safety culture would allow deviations from proper procedures or techniques to become part of normal operating procedure that will, possibly, lead to a tragic outcome from what should be a truly wonderful diving experience. 

In order to address accidents in the use of closed-circuit rebreathers (CCRs), the technical diving community came together in 2012 at Rebreather Forum 3.0 and developed a series of recommendations to improve CCR safety. One of these recommendations was the use of checklists. The use of checklists, however, should not be confined to rebreather diving. The use of a checklist to reduce the likelihood that some critical aspect of pre-dive preparation is not missed should be an essential part of every diver’s repertoire.  Unfortunately, diving accident data and post-accident diver interviews show that checklists may still not be considered part of many diver’s safety procedures. The lack of checklist use could, in many cases, have possibly prevented a tragedy but, not using a checklist was considered, by many, normal operating procedure. While checklists should be considered a standard part of every diver’s preparatory procedures, I would also suggest combining the use of a checklist with a consistent pre-dive ritual for equipment preparation. Getting into a strict routine will certainly help prevent equipment configuration and preparation errors. 

Whether we are diving with friends, family, or others enjoying the same sport and dive site, we all want to enjoy the wonders of diving without ending up as a DAN statistic. We can all agree that a diving fatality is terrible for the sport, the industry and the loved ones that are left behind. Taking short cuts as a regular practice where these changes become “normalized” can certainly compromise our safety and the safety of our diving companions and risk taking away our most precious gift, life.

Our thanks to Scuba News, Dan Orr and Dan Orr Consulting for allowing us to republish this article.

Socorro Island rises abruptly from the sea to 1,050 meters (3,440 feet) in elevation at its summit. The island is the emerged summit of a massive, predominately submarine shield volcano. The island is part of the northern Mathematicians Ridge, a mid-ocean ridge that became largely inactive 3.5 million years ago when activity moved to the East Pacific Rise. All four islands along with the many seamounts on the ridge are post-abandonment alkaline volcanoes. Socorro Island is unusual in that it is the only dominantly silicic peralkaline volcanic island in the Pacific Ocean. It most recently erupted in late January-early February 1993, which was a submarine eruption off the coast from Punta Tosca. An earlier eruption was on May 21, 1951. Earlier eruptions probably occurred in 1905, 1896 and 1848. The island's surface is broken by furrows, small craters, and numerous ravines, and covered in lava domes, lava flows and cinder cones. 

There is a naval station, established in 1957, with a population of 250 staff and families living in a village with a church. The village stands on the western side of Bahia Vargas Lozano, a small cove with a rocky beach, about 800 meters east of Cabo Regla, the southernmost point of the island. The station is served by a dock, a local helipad and Isla Socorro airport, located six kilometers to the north. There is a freshwater spring about 5 km northwest of Cabo Regla, at the shoreline of Ensenada Grayson. This is brackish and sometimes covered by the sea at high tide. In the 1950s, a small freshwater seep was known to exist some 45 meters (49 yards) inland at Bahia Lucio Gallardo Pavon, about 800 meters NW of the naval station. 

The islands are located nearly 400 km (250 miles) from the Baja California peninsula. Due to the isolated location, the only way to visit Socorro is through liveaboard. Most visitors begin their trips by arriving at Los Cabos International Airport in Mexico. Then, divers travel 45 minutes to Cabo San Lucas where they take off on a liveaboard. It usually takes about a day for the liveaboard to arrive at the islands. 

The diving season lasts from November to May as that is when the often-rough waters are at their calmest. However, even the calmer waters have strong currents, making this trip best for advanced divers.

Although the Socorro’s waters are not filled with the colorful reefs many divers look out for, the marine life more than makes up for it. Manta rays, dolphins, hammerhead sharks, tiger sharks, are just a few of the common sights in these waters. Humpback whales can even be seen on their migration path through the months of January and February, and the dolphins are known for coming into close contact with divers, most commonly from January to March.  

When divers first arrive at the islands, they often begin their scuba adventure at El Fondeadero. This dive site is located in San Benedicto’s shallower waters where there are three pinnacles and sightings of lobster and eels. The famous sightings of humpback whales are east of Socorro island at the Cabo Pearce dive site. Abundant pelagic life can be seen at the isolated Roca Partida dive site. This site is over 80 miles from San Benedicto and has a pinnacle peaking up out of the water. This site is best suited for advanced divers and has over 100 feet of visibility. 

When planning your next dive trip, make sure the Socorro Islands are at the top of your list. The close encounters with dolphins, sharks, and manta rays at this location are unmatched, and the humpback whale sightings are one of a kind. 

We were graced by multiple visits from the world’s largest fish and even had the joy of snorkelling with whale sharks and dolphins at the same time (where are you supposed to look in those circumstances?!). Photos taken from the encounters allowed our friends at Conservation International to identify our spotty visitors.

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Spanish for “two eyes,” Dos Ojos is commonly explored in two dives. This is one of the most popular cenotes, so it can get a bit crowded. However, experiencing the stunning stalactites, stalagmites, and bat cave makes it worth it. There is even an underground tunnel that connects the two caverns — creating a perfectly unique experience for any diver.  Divers and snorkelers alike can also spot the small fish that call Dos Ojos home. Photos courtesy of cenotedosojos.com and cenotesmexico.org

Calavera Cenote

Often referred to as the “Temple of Doom,” Calavera is arguably one of the best diving cenotes in Mexico. Located in Tulum, this spot has three entrances to its underground waters. The main entrance is a large hole with a ladder that leads its sparkling blue-green waters. When diving Calavera, guests usually dive to a depth of around 15 meters. A popular sight to see is the halcyon layer: where freshwater and saltwater meet. Due to the overall clarity of the water, this layer is very visible. Photo courtesy of todotulum.com

Cenote Tajma Ha 

With a visible halcyon layer, Tajma Ha is located between Tulum and Playa del Carmen. This spot is best for more advanced divers as it has cramped spaces with jagged walls. This site is usually explored over the course of 50 minutes with one tank. Guests will drive through tunnels and into caverns as they spot the stunning speleothems. The halcyon layer is located in one of the tunnels, and that is just one of the many unique sights divers see. Photo courtesy of aquaworld.com.mx

Dreamgate Cenote

Located in Playa del Carmen, the Dreamgate Cenote is part of one of the largest cave systems in the world. Much like Tajma Ha, Dreamgate is best for advanced divers. There are plenty of stalactites, stalagmites, and columns that make this such a challenging, yet beautiful, dive. Dives at this site are usually short with the use of just one tank, but there is still plenty to see. Photo courtesy of cenotesworld.com

Miguel Colorado

Hidden away in the jungle, Miguel Colorado Cenote appears to be a pond. However, open cenotes such as this one tends to be much older than ones located in caves. This is usually due to the collapse of the roof of the cave. This cenote is surrounded by breathtaking greenery, and there are plenty of activities for guests to enjoy. This includes nearby hiking trails, kayaking, and ziplining across the stunning waters. Photo courtesy of viamexico.mx

Chihuan

With its waters completely under the overhanging cave, Chihuan Cenote is popular for swimming. The waters are crystal clear, and there are ropes tied to the low hanging ceiling for swimmers to rest on. This location is not very well known, so it usually only has a few visitors at a time. Photo courtesy of cancuntochichenitza.com

Taak Bi Ha Cenote

Although most might not know of Taak Bi Ha Cenote,  it is a snorkeler's dream. This site is located 40 minutes from Playa del Carmen, not too far past Dos Ojos. It is owned by the local community but can be dived through local diving centers. Inside one of the caves is a river-like path that guests typically need to explore with the help of a guide. Photo courtesy of advanceddivermexico.com

Angelita

Etthingili Alifushi - Consisting of only two islands that lie on a detached reef, Etthingili Alifushi Atoll is known for its peaceful environment. Only one of the two islands is inhabited, and the waters surrounding them are very deep. There are luxury hotels in which guests can  their time, and the natives are known for their carpentry and boat building.  

You & Me Resort - Raa Atoll 

Baa Atoll - Due to its abundant biodiversity, Baa Atoll is a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. The waters are home to gatherings of manta rays and whale sharks, most often in Hanifaru Bay. Perhaps one of the most popular sites in Baa is the submerged reef known as Dhonfanu Thila where divers can swim deep into the waters and see schools of fish as well as the occasional shark or manta ray. Although this is a more difficult dive, visitors of any skill level can choose from a wide range of dive sites that fits their abilities. Photo courtesy of Visit Maldives.

Goidhu Atoll - As a small oval-shaped atoll with a lagoon free of coral heads, Goidhu has seven islands in total. Only three of the islands are inhabited, but there are still plenty of excursions for visitors to experience. Snorkeling and diving are popular at this atoll, and the lagoon ranges from 30-35 meters deep. 

Lhaviyani Atoll - Just a 40-minute seaplane ride north of Male Airport, Lhaviyani Atoll is perfect for any visitor as there are many different resorts to choose from. From adults-only resorts to family-friendly resorts, Lhaviyani truly has it all. Guests looking for a peaceful getaway will be able to find that on this atoll just as others looking for adventure will be able to experience it. 

Kaashidhu Atoll - With many coconut trees and its stunning landscape, this atoll has an oval-shaped lagoon and a narrow reef. There are only two islands in the atoll, and there are Buddhist remains from centuries ago. The waters surrounding this atoll are incredibly deep. 

Gahaafaru Atoll - With a large reef that has caused many shipwrecks, this small atoll is separated from Male by a deep channel known as Gaafaru Kandu. The lagoon has no coral patches or shoals. There isn’t anywhere to stay on this atoll, but guests still visit this atoll for day trips. 

North and South Male Atoll

North and South Male Atoll - The Male Atoll comprises two sections: North Male Atoll and South Male Atoll. North Male Atoll is one of the most popular destinations in the Maldives while South Male Atoll is mostly explored by more experienced divers due to its strong currents. North Male Atoll is easily accessed as it is home to the airport, and there is plenty to do, including exploring the capital city or staying at one of the many luxury resorts. South Male Atoll is located near the airport as well and is perfect for guests looking to vacation on a budget. Photo courtesy of ZuBlu.

Thoddu Atoll - With some of the deepest waters in all of the Maldives, Thoddu Atoll is often used for island hopping as there are no real resorts there. There are Buddhist ruins that can be found on parts of the atoll, and the main source of income for those living on Thoddu’s islands is agriculture. 

Rasdhu Atoll - Although Rasdhu Atoll may be small, it has plenty of sights to see. Most popular amongst snorkelers and scuba divers, the atoll has a barrier reef stretching along its northern to western sides with another reef to the east. Sightings of hammerhead sharks, manta rays, and turtles are common at this location, and it is usually visited as day trips. 

Ari Atoll - The Ari Atoll is located in the western region of the Maldives and is most famous for its stunning clear waters. The atoll is one of the largest in the area, and it has around 50 small islands and several oval reefs. Divers often visit this atoll for the pinnacle, Mayya Thila. This pinnacle reaches a depth of 100 feet, and divers often spot stingrays and barracudas as they descend into the sea. This atoll can be reached by a quick 30-minute seaplane flight from Male airport. 

Vaavu Atoll - Situated between South Male Atoll and Meemu Atoll, Vaavu Atoll is home to the ring-shaped Vattaru Reef at its southern end. Most arrive at one of the atoll's five inhabited islands by ferry or speedboat. These trips usually range from around one to three hours. Guests usually visit this atoll for its stunning dive sites, including the Keyodhoo wreck that is only a few years old. There is also a channel with caves and overhangs known as Fotteyo Kandu that bring in many divers each year. 

Falhu Atoll - With only one uninhabited islet, Falhu is a very small egg-shaped atoll. Since it is located near the Vattaru Kandu channel, it is often referred to as Vattaru Atoll. This channel is very popular amongst divers due to its diversity and strong currents; however, it can only be reached by boat. Tourists usually don’t visit this atoll due to its small size and the fact that it's uninhabited, but there are many great sights to see in its waters. 

Meemu Atoll - With 33 islands in total, Meemu Atoll is located south of Male. While the atoll can be visited by liveaboards, it can also be explored from the comfort of luxury resorts. The islands have plenty of history, including a mosque and a 1573 wreck off of a reef near Kolhuvaariyaafushi Island.

Faafu Atoll

Faafu Atoll - Faafu Atoll is located near the channel Ariadhoo Kandu, which separates it from Ari Atoll. It is often described as peaceful due to its small size and population. Out of the 20 islands that make up this atoll, 15 are uninhabited. This atoll is located just over 100 kilometers from the Male airport. Photo courtesy of the Dive Report.

Dhaalu Atoll - With plenty of luxury resorts to choose from, Dhaalu Atoll is a perfect vacation spot for families and honeymooners. Divers can explore the open lagoon or straight barrier reefs while other visitors can enjoy surfing or snorkeling. 56 islands make up this atoll, and less than 10 of the islands are inhabited. Dhaalu airport is located on the capital island of Kudahuvadhoo and can be reached by flights coming in from Velana International Airport. 

Kolhumadulu - Also known as Thaa Atoll, Kolhumadulu is famous for its waters that are ideal for fishing. Buddhism is a large part of the atoll’s history, and there are plenty of Buddhist remains on some of the islands. COMO Maalifushi is the only resort on this atoll. 

Haddhunmathi - As one of the more secluded atolls, Haddhunmathi is reached by a short boat ride from Kadhdhoo Airport. Most guests arrive at Kadhdhoo from the Male International Airport. There is one luxury resort on the atoll known as Six Senses. There are plenty of barrier reefs in its waters, some of which even turn into islands. Due to its tropical beauty, the atoll was chosen as the filming location for the Star Wars movie Rogue One. 

Huvadhoo Atoll

Huvadhoo Atoll - Often referred to as Gaafu, is the second-largest atoll of the Maldives. There are 235 islands in this atoll, and it is surrounded by a rim reef. Many visit this atoll for its ideal surfing conditions, specifically from April to October. Guests can spend their vacation exploring the diverse waters of Gaafu as reef fish, pelagics, and macro life are all common sights for divers. Guests visiting Huvadhoo can experience the atoll at any of the luxury hotels and resorts, or they can visit from several liveaboards.

Fuvahmulah Atoll - Located in the south of the Maldives. Due to its proximity to the equator, there aren’t any seasonal changes that impact diving, so guests are welcome year-round. Most of the dive sites in this area have not been extensively explored, making this location best for more advanced divers. In addition to the pristine, nearly untouched reefs, there are many freshwater lakes as well. 

Addu Atoll

Addu Atoll - Located just south of the equator, Addu Atoll is surrounded by barrier reefs and coral patches in the northern areas. Due to the diverse marine life around the atoll’s reefs, it is a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. There are 30 islands, 13 of which are inhabited by around 10,000 people. The atoll has a long history, including a dialect that is specific to the area. Photo courtesy of the Scuba News.